Italy
Conclusion
Whew! That was quite a mess, wasn't it?
You aren't going to get a handle on Italian history in the late Middle Ages in one reading, or even in two. It will remain muddled and confusing for quite a while, I'm afraid. Still, it's worth reiterating some main points.
1. There Was No Italy
In the south there were Naples and Sicily. In the center were the Papal States, which were only sporadically under the control of the popes. In the north were a variety of contending powers, most prominent of which were Milan, Venice and Florence.
2. Outside Forces
The main outside forces were the Empire and the papacy. These forces were expressed in factions as the Ghibellines and the Guelfs, though these were hardly more than labels toward the end of our course.
Beyond these two powers were Spain and France. In the fourteenth and into the fifteenth centuries it was mostly Aragon; later, it was the united kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. With France it was primarily Anjou but with the house of Valois entering in later.
These outside forces were both friend and foe. Specifically, if one side called upon Aragon, the other would call upon Anjou. If one side appealed to the pope, the other would appeal to the emperor. For a long time this was hardly more than an appeal to individuals, but in the late 15th century the outside forces—France and Spain especially—were becoming formidable states and appeals to them brought into Italy forces the Italians could no longer control. Accustomed to playing out outsider off against another, the Italians found that they had brought into their playground bullies that would not leave.
Everyone's a Local
The final general point to keep in mind is that local loyalties were always stronger than wider loyalties. This is why we see this town or that leader build up an effective state or a wider realm only to have it crumble again. We see leaders emerge that immediately have the effective of uniting all their neighbors against them. Late medieval Italy is in this respect reminiscent of ancient Greece, where every city-state valued its independence above all else, while at the same time would seize every opportunity to expand at the expense of a neighbor.
The result was a sort of unending soap opera of family loyalties and betrayals. It makes for much high drama, but it makes a shambles of narrative. The student can be advised that in the long run, each of us constructs our own narrative and our own picture of Italy.